outer collection cup so that only a small portion extends beyond
the pipe. Make sure the bore is not much larger tiian 1 cm 0.5 in. in diameter. Bait and place the trap as before and remove the next day. This time the worms will have gotten too fat to fit through the bore of the funnel Nooyen, 1990 . Smaller worms in the substrate are relatively easy to remove, but their large numbers make the task a difficult one, and considering their beneficial aspects, an unnecessary one. If you merely wish to reduce the numbers of worms, a technique that works well is...
Eggcrate
In order to minimize the rocks' contact with the bottom and prevent the formation of dirt traps, some people use eggcrate as an elevated, open base. Eggcrate is manufactured as a diffuser for overhead fluorescent lights. It is a grid-like plastic material with squares approximately 1 cm 0.5 inch wide. The typical color is white, but it is also available in black. Metallic eggcrate, manufactured to lend a high-tech look to overhead fluorescents, is probably unsuitable for use inside aquariums....
Pistons and Paddles
Wre have seen three other surge devices employed in aquariums in our travels to different public aquaria. The National Aquarium in Baltimore uses a paddle system controlled by an hydraulic arm to generate a beautiful back and forth surge in their living coral reef exhibit. The paddle is located behind the artificial rock-work. We have seen similar paddle systems moved by motor or air compressor at the Virginia Beach Science Museum and the New7 York Aquarium. The most magnificent surge device at...
Family Hippolytidae
Shrimp of the genus Savon are occasionally offered for sale to aquarists. When kept in fish only aquariums, they make very Saron marmoratus female . A.J. Nilsen. interesting additions. They are also easy to sex and should prove to be a good breeding challenge. However, they can wreak havoc in a reef aquarium with corals and clams. The Marble shrimp, Saron marmoratus, so named due to their green mottled appearance although they can alter their colour to blend in with the background , is a large...
Scientific Names Plerogyra sinuosa Dana 1846 Physogyra lichtensteini Edwards
Common Names Bubble Coral, Pearl Coral, Bladder Coral Colour Usually whitish gray, bluish gray, or brown. Sometimes green, especially the unidentified Plerogyra species described below. Plerogyra sinuosa often has a cats-eye appearance in the bubbles. Distinguishing Characteristics Three species of bubble corals are imported from Indonesia, Plerogyra sinuosa Dana, 1846 , Pbysogyra lichtensteini Edwards and Haime, 1851, and an unidentified Plerogyra sp. All have bubble-like polyp vesicles, light...
Bacteria and Viruses
Very little research has been done on the types of bacteria and viruses that can afflict corals. This is unfortunate as it is becoming increasingly clear that in areas such as the Caribbean these organisms are potentially more devastating to coral reefs than the mechanical effects of storms and humans Shinn, 1989 . The research on bacteria and viruses affecting bivalves, especially mussels and oysters, is much better. This is solely due to the fact that they represent billions of dollars in...
from terrestrial sources such as freshwater runoff resulting in
elevated nutrient levels. This is particularly pronounced when the land is heavily forested. Islands or coastlines that are drier tend to show reef formations more like those found on oceanic reefs. Both stony and soft coral diversity tends to be lower on near-shore reefs Along the coastline, one can often find extensive mangrove beds. These areas are home to many of the juvenile forms of creatures found on the nearby reef. It is not unusual to find some stony corals in this area as well,...
Subclass Malacostraca Superorder Hoplocarida
Common Names Mantis Shrimp, Thumb Splitters Mantis shrimp are the bane of almost every reef aquarist. We all dread hearing that tell-tale snapping sound coming from deep within the rock-work of our aquaria. These shrimp are voracious predators feeding on small fish, shrimp, worms, clams and crabs. They have an elongated body with two well-developed eyes located on short stalks, and a pair of powerful pincers held folded underneath the body similar to the terrestrial praying mantis. There are...
Acontia Filaments
Sometimes a stressed coral may appear to be covered with fine white strings. These are its digestive filaments that can be ejected externally for defensive purposes see photo chapter 3 . Acontia are used to attack neighboring corals and where they contact another species, tissue disintegration is sure to follow. The release of terpenoid compounds by soft corals can also stimulate acontia release in stony corals, as can the presence of other noxious compounds in the water. Supersaturation of...
Light
We have successfully kept tridacnid clams under both fluorescent R.O., H.O. and V.H.O. and metal halide H.Q.I. lighting systems. However, the more light you give them the better they will do. Also, with brighter light you can place them lower in the aquarium. To really appreciate the colours of these animals, they should be viewed from a downward angle. Lower light intensity systems will require that the clams be placed closer to the surface, and therefore the brilliant colours will not be as...
Scientific Name Tridacna gigas Linnaeus 1758
Common Names Giant Clam, Gigas Clam Colour The mantle of this species is usually golden brown, yellow or green, and has numerous iridescent blue or green spots on its surface, particularly around the edges. In larger specimens the blue spots become so numerous that the whole mantle may appear bluish or purplish. Numerous pale or clear spots, especially Upper and lateral view of shell Below Map with geographical distribution of the clam. After Lucas 1988. Note Although the map indicates the...
Chapter Seven
These living ecosystems we create, these aquariums, are really living works of art each living plant or animal a combination of colour, pattern and texture. In creating a natural environment we make a sculpture that grows, and this creative process is perhaps the most satisfying aspect of the hobby. In the creation of your living masterpiece you have choices to make, and it is wise to plan from the start what kind of reef you wish to create, what it will look like and what you plan to grow....
Temperature
Temperature is the most critical physical parameter for captive reef systems. If all other parameters are ideal, but the temperature is not, the reef will not thrive see chapter 2 . The temperature in reef aquariums should be between 21-27 C 70-80 F for the best results, and as stable as possible. In our experience, a temperature of 23-24 C 74-76 F is ideal. If the temperature varies plus or minus one or two degrees Fahrenheit during the course of the day, this is not a problem. The most common...
Coral Reef Flat
Behind the outer reef flat lies an area of aligned corals, where tongues of sand and rubble extend leeward giving a pronounced spur and groove appearance. Stony corals such as Acropora and Pocillopora are dominant in these areas, along with Goniastrea, Favia, Favitesand Porites Veron, 1986 Davies et al,1984 . Waves carry sand and rubble from these areas to the sand flat and lagoon areas behind them Davies et a ., 1984 . The coral reef hat gives way to a sandy area in some reefs. These areas are...
as a result of a genetic trait G Hesliim oers comm
Below Map with geographical distribution of the clam. After Lucas 1988. A possible hybrid cross between T. derasa and T. gigas, as mentioned in the text. The specimen is tank-raised. It is also possible that this is only a localized form of T. derasa with features similar to T. gigas. Note the clear windows at the center of the mantle, like T. gigas, and the unusual small teardrop-shaped clear windows scattered over the mantle. J.C. Delbeek. Compare the hybrid or unusual form of T. derasa on...
Scientific Name Tridacna tevoroa Lucas Ledua and Braley 1990
Colour The mantle is predominantly brownish-grey in colour and rugose having many protuberences . The mantle colour is usually uniform, but it may also have some pattern, with numerous pale spots, including but not limited to the tip of the exhalent siphon and grooves between the mantle protuberences. Distinguishing Characteristics Similar to T. derosa but has a thinner, sharper edged shell more prominent guard tentacles on the incurrent siphon a rugose mantle and red bands on the shell near...
Systems for Maintaining Corals and Clams
Before you can begin planning an aquarium, its location, filtration, lighting, size etc., you must have some idea of what it is you will be keeping. Will you be keeping hard corals, soft corals or a mixture of these Will the aquarium be invertebrates only or fish and invertebrates will macroalgae also be included The decision you make here affects not only the types of organisms you will keep, but also the filtration system used, the amount and type of lighting, the size of the aquarium, and...
Scientific Name Tridacna maxima Roding 1798
Common Names Great, Maxima, or Rugose Clam Colour Tridacna maxima displays a wide variety of colours and patterns, exhibiting combinations of blue, brown, green, grey, purple and yellow in stripes, blotches and spots. Usually there are larger areas of solid colour, such as blue, than in the other species. For example, certain individuals from the Red Sea can be almost solid blue. Often but not always has a prominent row of black pigmented eye spots along the outer edge of the mantle....
True Crabs
True crabs come in many different shapes and sizes but they all possess flattened bodies, short antennae and a small abdomen tightly held against their underside. These crabs have filled many ecological niches ranging from herbivores to scavengers some are commensals and some are crawlers while still others are swimmers. We offer here only a few examples that you may find in your aquarium. Family Xanthidae Common Name Stone Crabs This family is one of the most well-represented on the reef and...
Order Milleporina
Family Milleporidae Fleming, 1828 Scientific Name Milleporaspp. Linnaeus, 1758 Common Names Fire Coral, Ridge Coral Although fire corals are not true stony corals, we include them here because of their resemblance to them, and similar requirements. Fire corals are hydrozoans, more closely related to jellyfish. Milleporasp. growing in a reef aquarium. Note that new tissue has encrusted over the adjacent rock. Such growth proceeds very rapidly, and can harm soft corals such as gorgonians. J.C....
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enough, these white lines fade. Caulastrea ecbinulata and C. curvata also expand well when they receive enough light. Caulastrea species feed well at night, hut need not be led at all. Aquarium Reproduction Individual polyps divide into two, three, or four new polyps, and colonies can proliferate rapidly. In C. furcata and C. curvata, boring sponges and worms weaken the columns, causing branches to fall away from the main colony. Such fragmentation produces daughter colonies. Both species are...
Scientific Name Tridacna ferasa Roding 1819
Common Names Smooth Giant Clam or Derasa Clam Colour Tridacna derasa generally have either a striped pattern of wravy lines or a spotted pattern consisting of various combinations of orange, yellow, black, blue and white. Some specimens can also have brilliant blue or green lines. Distinguishing Characteristics Heavy, very plain shell absence of strong ribbing and scutes incurrent aperture has pronounced tentacles loses byssus gland as it grows very small, narrow byssus gland opening most have...
Shipping Xenia
The technique used to ship Xenia was developed by Peter Wilkens, and continues to be used today. Since Xenia spp. foul very rapidly when maintained on the bottom of a stagnant container of water, Wilkens tried floating the colonies upside-down attached to a piece of styrofoam by means of a rubber band. The.technique works extremely well for most species. It is important to use very clean water, and it is beneficial to allow the specimens to clean themselves1' first by the drying and re-wretting...
Spectacular Reef Aquariums from Around the World
Imagine what it would be like to own a reef aquarium like this In our travels we have encountered some pretty amazing public and private reef aquariums, and we thought it would be inspirational to give a tour of some of these tanks. Their beauty demonstrates the kind of success that one can attain. With perseverance, patience, and by following the techniques described in this book, one really can reproduce thriving ecosystems like these. We also want to show some variation in the types of...
ZSpar Splash Zone Compound A 788
This compound is a two-part epoxy putty. After mixing equal parts of A and B according to the directions, some heat will be generated, but not enough to really be a problem underwater. Virtually all epoxies are very sticky above water, but do not adhere well when wet. Z-Spar loses enough stickiness to make it easy to handle if your gloved fingers are wet, but one of the unique characteristics of this compound is that it still stays relatively sticky and adheres well to rocks even underwater....
Order Neogastropoda
Family Muricidae Common Name Oyster Drills Above Two unidentified muricidae snails feeding on Zoanthussp. colonial anemones from Indonesia. J. Sprung. Oyster drills, belonging to the genus Urosalpinx, are occasionally introduced into the aquarium with live rock. These small snails use a tongue-like appendage called a radula to bore a hole in the shell of an oyster and suck out the contents. They should be removed as a precaution to prevent any damage to any other bivalves in the aquarium....
Polyurethane Foam
Some large public and private reef aquariums in Europe have very little limestone rock at all in them. What looks like rock in these tanks is actually a polyurethane foam substance which has been shaped to look like rock. The surface is apparently very attractive to coralline algae which rapidly colonize it, making it virtually indistinguishable from the real McCoy. The Aquaria-Vattenmuseet in Stockholm, Sweden, Hagenbeck s Tierpark in Hamburg, Germany and the Lobbecke Museum in Dusseldorf have...
Phylum Cnidaria
Aiptasia spp. anemones are probably one of the most bothersome pests in the reef aquarium. In some cases they can proliferate so quickly that they can completely cover an entire aquarium in only a few months. In aquariums that receive regular feedings, they can multiply even faster. Some aquarists consider this is a desirable thing and they proudly present these aquariums as reef tanks'1, Aiptasia anemones stinging a colony of star polyps, Pachyclavularia sp. S.W. Michael. however, we do not...
Family Acroporidae Verrill 1902 Scientific Name Acropora spp Oken 1815
Common Names Staghorn Coral, Acropora Colour Usually golden-brown with pale tips that may lie white, pink, purple, blue, or green. Whole colonies may also be vividly coloured, with blue, pink, purple, orange, green, and yellow being typical in the Pacific. Caribbean species seem to be only shades of brown to yellow. Distinguishing Characteristics Acropora species are characterized by rapidly growing terminal polyps at the tips of branches. Similar Species The only other species covered by this...
Purchasing Tridacnid Clams
When tridacnid clams are first imported, they generally exhibit a behaviour called gaping. This means that the shell is fully open, the mantle is poorly extended and the inhalant siphon widely stretched. As this condition eventually passes the inhalant siphon will gape less, the shell will not be open as much and the mantle will begin to expand. If, however, the clam is kept under unsuitable light conditions, is damaged or unhealthy, this gaping behaviour will continue and the mantle will begin...
Scientific Name Tridacna crocea Lamarck 1819
Common Names Boring or Crocus Clam, Crocea clam Colour Tridacna crocea is probably the most colourful member of this genus. Colours can include various mixtures of blue, purple, yellow, green, brown, gold, and orange in a variety of patterns. The mantle usually has numerous iridescent blue, yellow or green blotches, small spots or lines. Below Map with geographical distribution of the clam. After Lucas 1988. Distinguishing Characteristics Large, wide byssus gland opening normally smooth shell...
Alternative Filtration Systems
In the late 1950s and early 60s Lee Chin Eng, an aquarist who lived in Indonesia, reported great success with a method of aquarium keeping that he called nature s system Eng, 1961 . Mr. Eng used unfiltered seawater, and circulation in his aquariums was achieved with air bubblers within the tank, either airstones or open ended air hoses for larger bubbles. The aquarium decor consisted of live rocks with attached plants and invertebrates, and live corals. His technique, now called the natural...
Scientific Name Pavona spp Lamarck 1801
Common Names Lettuce Coral, Cactus Coral, Leaf Coral Several species of Pavona have been grown in reef aquaria, getting their start as small colonies attached to live rock with other invertebrates such as mushroom anemones or soft corals. Aquarists with a sharp eye can spot such little treasures and grow nice colonies from them. Pavona cactus Forskal, 1775 and Pavona decussata Dana, 1846 are the most often encountered species. Colour Brown with slight greenish hue Distinguishing Characteristics...
Nutrient Regulation on Coral Reefs
Nutrients dissolved in the aquatic environment make life possible since aquatic organisms have to directly or indirectly extract most of their required elements from the water that surrounds them. The availability of organic and inorganic nutrients limits biological productivity. Coral reefs develop best in nutrient poor water, but reef communities may also exist in more nutrient rich coastal waters. In order to appreciate some strategies employed in maintaining corals, one needs to understand...
Appendix CSuggested Readings Computer Programs Videos Books
Aciey, W.H. and K. Love land. 1991. Dynamic Aquaria Building Living Ecosystems. Academic Press, Inc., 643 pp. Barnes, R.D. 1980. Invertebrate Zoology. W.B. Saunders Co., Toronto, 1089 pp. Copeland, J.W. and J.S. Lucas 1988. Giant Clams in Asia and the Pacific. ACIAR Monograph No.9, Canberra, Australia, 274 pp. cleGraaf, F. 1968. Handboek Voor Het Tropisch Zeewateraquarium. A.J.G. Strengholt Boeken, Utrecht, The Foss , S. and A.J. Nilsen. 1992a. Korallen riff-Aquarium. Banc 1. Birgit Schmettkamp...
Tissue receding
Look around the base of the specimen of large-polypecl fleshy corals such as Catalaphyllia, Lobophyllia, and Euphyllia, to observe the appearance of the tissue connecting the polyp to its skeleton. If it appears to be pulling away, exposing the costae or septae, it is not perfectly healthy. With good conditions temperature, lighting, water quality this condition can heal rapidly. In making a purchasing decision, one must judge howr badly the coral is affected, and how magnificent a specimen it...
Letters from the Authors
When I first became interested in keeping marine invertebrates, especially corals, I was very frustrated by the lack of information available about how to recognize them and how to keep them healthy in a marine aquarium. Although I was lucky enough to have access to large amounts of scientific literature that was helpful in identification and ecology, there was little available on how to keep invertebrates alive in closed systems. For this information I had to turn to Dutch, German and other...
Scientific Name Hippopus porcellanus Rose water 1982
Common Names China or Porcelain Clam. Colour Mantle similar to H. hippopus and T. derasa. Distinguishing Characteristics Similar to H. hippopus but shell is thinner and smoother when small. Hippopus porcellanus has numerous fringing tentacles around the incurrent aperture Lucas, 1988 . Max. Length 40 cm 18 in . Natural Habitat This species occurs in the same habitat as H. hippopus but, as mentioned earlier, it has a much smaller geographic range. Aquarium Care Little is known about the...
Scientific Name Catalaphyllia jardinei SavilleKent 1893
Common Names Elegance Coral, Elegant Coral, Elegans Coral, Wonder Coral, Comb Coral, Meat Coral Catalaphyllia jardinei was named for Dr. Rene Catala, the curator of the aquarium at Noumea, New Caledonia, who displayed this coral under blue and ultraviolet light, showing off its spectacular fluorescent green tentacles with bright pink tips. Colour Several colour morphs exist, and there are also some differences in tentacle structure. The most typical morph is green with light pink tips on the...
Black Band Disease
Black band disease is characterized by a front of black, gooey material mostly algae behind which is denuded skeleton and in front of which is healthy tissue. The denuded skeleton is rapidly coated with many species of algae, including the black gooey mats characteristic of the black bands. It affects hard corals mostly, but also some soft corals, including gorgonians and Sinularia spp. Current scientific studies indicate that several organisms cause this disease. While a particular species of...
Competitive and Defensive Mechanisms of Corals
Competition for space is one of the most important factors limiting populations on marine hard substrata. Obviously there must be some sort of controls to allow a high diversity of life to exist in such a limited area. This is why sessile colonial marine organisms such as anemones, sponges, soft and stony corals have developed various mechanisms for defending their space and moving into new ones Sammarco et al., 1983 . Failure to recognize this fact can cause a lot of frustration for the...
Bryopsis
Another kind of filamentous algae, Bryopsis, is very similar to Derbesia, except that the tips of some of the filaments have feather-like shape. The colour is dark green, often with an iridescent blue sheen. Both Derbesia and Bryopsis can occur simultaneously, growing together as tangled masses. While Derbesia is readily eaten by fish, Bryopsis is tougher to chewr and apparently not too delicious. Tangs will avoid it unless they are very hungry. Sea urchins will eat it, however. In established...
Order Pyramidellacea
There are a wide variety of snails that feed on clams and oysters. The majority of these belong to the family Pyramidellidae, of which there are at least 1000 species in the Pacific alone Cumming, 1988 . These snails are generally quite small reaching a maximum length of 2-4 mm 0.08-0.16 in. , and look like small grains of rice. The majority of what is known about these snails comes from the species that are commonly found feeding on oysters and clams in commercial operations. Very little is...
Hermit crabs
There are some species of hermit crabs that remain small and present little risk to the fish. Though omnivorous, these small 5 , Jymw-it yt J J L - 1 '1 lt V 1 4 M 1 jV ' t - Mithrax sculptus, an herbivorous crab from the Caribbean. J.C. Delbeek. Mithrax crabs are good herbivores for large aquariums. Mithrax sculptus only grows to about 6.3 cm 2.5 in. , but is capable of capturing small fish. Some Mithrax species grow very large, and are therefore unsuitable for most aquariums. We have heard...
filtration setup consisting of an UGF and an outside power filter OPF
but there are some disadvantages. The main disadvantage of an UGF is the trapping of detritus in the gravel bed or below the filter plate, which leads to a declining water quality and reduced oxygen level in 1 le tank. Some UGFs are designed to prevent this accumulation though, and passing water through a gravel bed can allow the formation of beneficial denitrifying zones see denitrification, chapters 2, 7, and 8 . We wish to emphasize, however, that no further biological filtration devices are...
Family Coralliophilidae
Leather corals are often preyed upon by snails. For example snails of the family Coralliophilidae such as Rapa rapa are often associated with Sarcophyton, Sin id aria and Lobopbytum leather corals Wilkens and Birkholz, 1986 . These cream-coloured snails have an onion-like appearance and can reach a length of 50-90 mm 2-4 in. . They are often found near the base of the coral and have the ability to bore a hole into the side of the animal, moving into the body column from where they proceed to...
removed from the display tank and treated with antibiotics in a
separate aquarium. Streptomycin and neomycin, shown to be effective in larval tridacnid clam rearing experiments Fitt et al., 1992 , may prove beneficial in the treatment of bacterial infections in corals. One drop of Lugo Is iodine solution diluted with aquarium water in an eyedropper can be directly applied over affected zoanthid anemones, and some soft corals see chapter 8 . Once the affected corals have healed, the protozoans seem to disappear and do not usually affect healthy corals in the...
White Paste
When a stony coral does not open up and appears to be engulfed by a pasty white substance, it is an indication of another kind of infection. A stressed coral secretes excess mucus to protect itself from an irritant in the water or the attack of a neighbouring coral. This excess mucus, which is teaming with bacteria, can suffocate the coral when there is insufficient water flow. In aquaria, this condition most often affects Catalaphyllia jardinei, Euphyllia spp. and Gonioporaspp. Treatment Move...
Common Name Brisileworms Polychaetes
Rristleworms come in a variety of shapes and sizes. Some species can be several centimetres in length, while others are less than 1 cm 0.4 in. . Most are elongated in shape, having a typical worm-like appearance. The body is segmented, with each segment sporting a pair of fleshy appendages called parapodia. It is from these appendages that the characteristic 'bristles7 , or setae, of polychaetes arise. In some species these setae are short and few while in others, such as the infamous Fire...
Suborder Dendronotacea
The Dendronotacea, contain 10 families and are characterized by having rhinophores that can be retracted into rhinophoral sheaths. Members of this group also have cerata that are often highly branched in appearance. The most commonly encountered genus in the aquarium is Dendronotus. These nudibranchs are usually 1-6 cm 0.4-2.4 in. in length and have a milky white body covered with highly branched cerata. They prey on just about every type of soft coral but are most often associated with...